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1. 1. The First European Revolution

   c. 970–1215

   

   A sweeping reinterpretation of the high medieval period argues that between roughly the late tenth and early thirteenth centuries Europe underwent a profound structural transformation: rulers and the Church consolidated authority, systems of law and administration became more centralized and standardized, private violence was increasingly suppressed, and economic and social changes—growth of towns, monetization, and new forms of landholding—recast political and social relationships. These linked developments, driven by reform movements, military and fiscal innovations, and expanding networks of trade and communication, created the institutional foundations and cultural norms that shaped later European states and societies.

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